期望理论首先是由Victor H. Vroom在1964。这个理论基于四个假设。一个是人们加入一个组织，期望他们的动机，过去的经验和需要。第二种假设是人的行为是有意识选择的结果。第三个假设是，人们希望或期望与他们的组织不同的东西，比如工作保障、高薪、挑战或晋升。第四个假设是，为了优化结果，人们很可能从自己的角度选择替代方案。基于这四个假设，理论定义的三个关键要素，期望、手段和价。具体地说，一个人的动机是在一定程度上他相信努力会导致可接受的表现，表现会得到回报，奖励的价值是非常积极的。因此，有一个方程理论：动机=期望×手段×价（Subba，2000）。
其次，它知道期望的定义是十分必要的，手段和价。定义为，期望是指一个人在某一特定的工作水平上估计他在工作中的努力结果的概率。概率从0到1不等。也就是说，如果一个员工认为努力不能达到预期的绩效水平，那么期望值就等于零，反之，如果他完全确认目标会实现，那么期望值是1。通常，期望达到两个极端之间。作为工具，它是指对一个给定的概率完成任务绩效水平会导致不同程度的员工工作结果的估计。类似的预期，手段也从0到1。例如，如果一个员工认为好的绩效评级不会导致增加薪水，那么工具性价值观0。另一方面，如果他认为好的绩效评级肯定会导致工资增加，那么手段达到1。关于价，它是一个人偏爱某一特定奖赏的力量。因此，晋升、加薪、上司的认可、同事的接受或其他奖励可能对员工的认知起到重要的作用。与工具性与预期相比，价范围从- 1 + 1，这是衡量阴性或阳性。当员工强烈希望得到奖励时，它被定义为积极的。然而，当他对奖赏无动于衷时，是0（弗莱德，2011）。
墨尔本管理学assignment代写:激励理论
In the field of management, motivation has become a heated issue for managers to take into consideration. Motivation is a psychological term which stimulates an organism to act towards a target. In other words, it can be seen as a driving force. (Schater, 2011). Motivation can be depended on the purpose of one’s explanation. Therefore, it can reflect the model of behavior. With respect to organizational behavior, expectancy theory is a motivational theory, in which motivation is defined as a process conducting choices among various forms of activities, which are controlled by the individual (Montana, 2008) The theory focuses on the needs for organizations to bound rewards with performance and to make sure that the rewards are wanted and deserved by the recipients. Besides, there are three components of the theory, expectancy, instrumentality and valence. This essay is going to analyze the details of expectancy theory, its relationship with motivation and its application in management.
Details of Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory was firstly introduced by Victor H. Vroom in 1964. The theory is based on four assumptions. One is that people join an organization with expectations about their motivations, past experience and needs. The second assumption is that one’s behavior is a result of conscious choice. And a third assumption is that people want or expect different things from their organization, such as job security, good salary, challenge or advancement. A fourth assumption is that in order to optimize the outcomes, people are likely to choose the alternatives from their own perspectives. Based on these four assumptions, the theory defines the three key elements, expectancy, instrumentality and valence. To put it specifically, an individual is motivated to the extent that he believes that effort will lead to acceptable performance, performance will be rewarded, and that the value of the rewards is highly positive. Thus, there is an equation of theory: Motivation=expectancy* instrumentality*valence (Subba, 2000).
Secondly, it is of great necessity to know the definition of expectancy, instrumentality and valence. It is defined that expectancy is when a person estimate the probability on the result of his effort in the job in a given level of performance. The probability is ranged from 0 to 1. That is to say, if an employee thinks that effort cannot lead to the desired performance level, then the expectancy is o. On the contrary, if he absolutely confirms that the target will be achieved, then the expectancy values 1. Usually, the expectancy reaches between the two extremes. As for instrumentality, it refers to the probability estimated by an employee about the degree that a given level of accomplished task performance will lead to diverse work outcomes. Similar to expectancy, instrumentality also ranges from 0 to 1. For instance, if an employee perceives that a good performance rating will not lead to an increase of salary, then the instrumentality values 0. On the other hand, if he thinks that good performance rating will definitely lead to salary increase, then the instrumentality reaches 1. Regarding valence, it is the strength of one’s preference for a particular reward. Hence, promotion, salary increases, recognition by supervisors, peer acceptance or other rewards may play an important role in employees’ perceptions. Compare with instrumentality and expectancy, valences ranges from -1 to +1, which is measured as negative or positive. It is defined as positive when an employee strongly wants to attain a reward. However, when he becomes indifferent to a reward, it is 0 (Fred, 2011).
