MGMT255 GlobalAging Aging_workforce 代写

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    uch has been written about the aging of the working population
    and the potential implications this trend holds for employers,
    financial markets and the overall economy. The possible workforce
    scenarios predicted to play out during the next five to 10 years range from
    demographic doomsday (i.e., severe labor shortages because of baby boomer
    retirements) to a soft landing (i.e., minimal workforce disruptions as the
    boomers continue working past traditional retirement age).
    Many organizations are beginning to recognize their longer-term business
    strategies could be compromised by a shortage of available talent if baby
    boomers do, in fact, retire en masse. Thus far, the reported worker shortages
    have emerged in fields like nursing, engineering (e.g., in the energy industry)
    and even long-haul trucking. For just about every industry, however, today’s
    demographic realities raise important issues about what it will take to meet
    critical business needs for workers, skills and knowledge in the future.
    Recognizing the importance of these talent-management issues, Towers
    Perrin analyzed the business case for enhanced organizational focus on
    hiring and retaining workers aged 50 and older. The research, done for AARP,
    highlights the need for employers to consider the full range of economic
    implications associated with the aging of the workforce, taking into account
    both cost and productivity factors. This paper summarizes the findings of the
    The Aging Workforce:
    Challenge or Opportunity?
    Roselyn R. Feinsod
    Towers Perrin
    14
    WorldatWork Journal third quarter 2006
    Thomas O. Davenport
    Towers Perrin
    Contents ©2006 WorldatWork.The content is licensed for use by purchasers
    solely for their own use and not for resale or redistribution. No part of this
    article may be reproduced, excerpted or redistributed in any form without
    express written permission of WorldatWork and appropriate attribution.
    Reach WorldatWork at 480/922-2020; customerrelations@worldatwork.org
    Towers Perrin analysis. Stated briefly, the research
    suggests organizations that adhere to the conventional
    wisdom about older workers — specifically, the notion
    that older workers are more expensive and less
    productive than younger groups — may miss a critical
    opportunity to maximize their talent base.
    In the authors’ view, the key to turning today’s
    demographic challenge into a business opportunity lies
    in a two-pronged strategy: careful workplace planning
    and developing targeted talent and reward strategies
    that align with key business goals while effectively
    managing labor costs and risks.
    Employee Engagement and Motivation
    The analysis began by considering if a long-tenured,
    experienced workforce exhibits productivity differences
    that can generate financial benefits for organizations.
    This part of the business case analysis required an
    evaluation of the assumption that older workers are
    less productive than younger groups. To test this belief,
    the Towers Perrin study for AARP focused in part on
    Towers Perrin’s research into the factors that shape
    employee behavior and, specifically, employee
    engagement. As Figure 1 shows, the broad 2003 U.S.
    workforce survey data suggest that motivation tends to
    increase with age.
    This phenomenon emerges across a variety of
    industries (See Figure 2 on page 16).
    Towers Perrin’s research into the drivers and effects
    of employee attitudes and behaviors indicates that
    motivation (the energy behind employees’ workplace
    contribution) is directly related to engagement (the
    degree to which employees are emotionally and
    intellectually attached to their organizations and their
    work). It comes as no surprise, then, that employee
    engagement also varies somewhat by age. The Towers
    Perrin 2005 survey of approximately 60,000 U.S. workers
    revealed that workers in general demonstrate relatively
    low engagement levels. However, as the data in Figure 3
    (on page 16) indicate, older workers are somewhat less
    likely to be disengaged (and a bit more likely to be
    moderately or highly engaged) than younger groups.
    Some of industry’s findings are even more dramatic in
    certain U.S. industry segments and in the global
    industry analysis. As an example, in the analysis of
    results for the U.S. energy industry, workers aged 55 and
    older are 22 percent highly engaged, versus workers age
    29 and younger who are 8 percent highly engaged.
    Because disengaged workers are more inclined to leave
    their employers, these workers pose added retention
    risk. Given the high cost of turnover, this risk brings the
    threat of higher cost to the organization.
    15
    WorldatWork Journal third quarter 2006
    FIGURE 1 Employee Motivation in All Industries, by Age
    Average Motivation Score*
    0 20 40 60 80 100
    Age 18-29
    71.2
    Age 30-44
    74.8
    Age 45-54
    75.8
    Age 55 and older
    78.4
    All ages
    74.8
    *Tower Perrin’s motivation score is based on a 100-point scale.
    Source: “2003 Towers Perrin Talent Report,” based on a random survey of more than 35,000
    employees working for large U.S. companies (i.e.  Fortune 1000 companies and equivalents)
    ©2005 Towers Perrin; reprinted with permission.
    In addition to correlating with retention, engagement
    also affects employees’ view of their ability to contribute
    to organizational success. Specifically, the Towers Perrin
    2005 workforce survey found that more highly engaged
    employees said they are far more likely to feel they can
    make a difference in business-critical areas such as
    quality and customer service. They also believe they can
    influence key financial outcomes like cost, profitability
    and revenue growth. Figure 4 on page 17 indicates how
    engagement affects employee views of their contributions
    to the business.
    Of course, engagement is only one factor influencing
    worker productivity. A rich academic archive on the
    direct relationship between productivity and aging exists.
    16
    WorldatWork Journal third quarter 2006
    FIGURE 2 Employee Motivation, by Industry and Age
    Average Motivation Score*
    0% 20 40 60 80 100%
    Energy
    71.9
    74.0
    75.3
    *Tower Perrin’s motivation score is based on a 100-point scale.
    Source: “2003 Towers Perrin Talent Report,” based on a random survey of more than 35,000 employees working for large U.S. companies (i.e.  Fortune 1000 companies and equivalents)
    ©2005 Towers Perrin; reprinted with permission.
    77.4
    74.7
    Financial services
    72.5
    74.9
    77.6
    77.8
    75.3
    Health care
    70.2
    77.4
    78.2
    80.8
    77.1
    Retail
    69.5
    75.9
    76.7
    73.3
    74.4
    Age 18-29 Age 30-44 Age 45-54 Age 55 and older All ages
    FIGURE 3 Engagement Across Age Groups
    0% 20 40 60 80 100%
    Ages 18-29
    18
    21
    Source: “Riding the Wave of Growth and Restructuring: Optimizing the ‘Deal’ for Today’s Workforce,” 2005 Towers Perrin Global Workforce Study U.S. Report, based on a random survey of
    approximately 60,000 employees working for large U.S. companies (i.e.,  Fortune 1000 companies and equivalents) ©2005 Towers Perrin; reprinted with permission.
    Ages 30-44
    16
    22
    Disengaged Moderately engaged Highly engaged
    Ages 45-55
    14
    21
    Ages 55 and older
    14
    22
    61
    62
    65
    64
    Some studies, mainly those focusing on manual dexterity
    and work-and-motion observations, suggest worker
    productivity begins to decline between the ages of 30
    and 40. Others find no significant relationship between
    productivity and age, as measured by work output and
    supervisory ratings. Researcher Neil Charness, for example,
    studied the tradeoffs between acquired knowledge and
    mental efficiency and concluded, “Knowledge can
    compensate, at least partially, for age-related declines in
    cognitive efficiency. It does so more successfully when
    the task is one for which fact retrieval can substitute for
    computation of answers. A knowledgeable older adult
    will outperform a computationally swift but less
    knowledgeable young adult” (Charness 2000).
    Ultimately, researchers have concluded, in a wide
    range of fields, experience in a domain (which is built
    over time and therefore increases with age) tends to
    offset the cognitive declines that may occur with age.
    Even when it comes to fast-paced jobs that require
    speed of execution, advancing age may not be a
    significant disadvantage because communication and
    decision-making skills can often more than make up for
    any decline in manual dexterity.
    Understanding the Cost Dynamic
    Having assessed the value side of the equation, the
    researchers turned attention to the cost side. A key
    element of the cost analysis was examination of the
    assumption that older workers cost far more than
    younger workers (chiefly companies believe, because
    of higher wage and benefit expense). The analysis for
    AARP (Towers Perrin 2005) suggests this assumption
    may contain more myth than fact in many cases.
    To assess the cost of older versus younger workers,
    four components were examined. The components
    make up 97 percent of total compensation cost,
    according to Towers Perrin’s data.
    0 Cash compensation, including bonuses, were typical
    for the position. While average pay tends to increase
    initially with service and age, this increase in pay can
    also result from gains in employee competence or
    movement up the career ladder in an organization.
    0 Employer-paid health-benefits costs (primarily
    medical coverage representing the vast bulk of these
    costs). On the one hand, it is true that health-care claims
    costs tend to be higher for older workers (1.4 to 2.2
    times that for younger workers), as Figure 5 indicates.
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    WorldatWork Journal third quarter 2006
    FIGURE 4 How Engagement Affects Employee Views of Their Contributions to the Business
    Positively impact quality
    42
    86
    Source: “Riding the Wave of Growth and Restructuring: Optimizing the Deal for Today’s Workforce,” 2005 Towers Perrin Global Workforce Study U.S. Report, based on a random survey of
    approximately 60,000 employees working for large U.S. companies (i.e.,  Fortune 1000 companies and equivalents) ©2005 Towers Perrin; reprinted with permission.
    Positively impact cost
    24
    68
    Disengaged Moderately engaged Highly engaged
    Positively impact customer service
    36
    76
    Positively impact profitability
    18
    61
    Percentage of employees agreeing with statement
    0 20 40 60 80 100
    Positively impact revenue growth
    16
    55
    68
    42
    55
    33
    29
    On the other hand, actual costs also vary widely
    among individuals, even people within the same age
    group, because of factors such as health risks and
    health-care utilization. In fact, the University of
    Michigan Health Management Research Center studies
    found that age may be less important than the
    incidence of specific health risks in driving up health-
    care costs. Common risk factors examined in one study
    found that annual medical claim costs for individuals
    with five or more risk factors (such as high blood
    pressure, obesity, high cholesterol, smoking and alcohol
    use) were typically at least double the costs incurred by
    healthier individuals with two or fewer risk factors at
    virtually all age levels examined (Edington 2001).
    0 Retirement benefits represent another significant
    component of total compensation cost in major U.S.
    companies. Plan design heavily drives variation in
    retirement costs. Plan design can be structured in
    various ways to achieve HR goals such as rewarding
    long-service or career employees. For example,
    traditional pension plans (which are declining in
    prevalence) provide strong incentives for employees to
    stay with the company until key age and service
    requirements are met. Defined-contribution plans
    (the more common plan type these days) tend to be
    more cost-neutral with regard to age and are more
    portable. Many employers also have limited their
    retiree medical benefits by freezing eligibility or
    scaling back these benefits by capping the maximum
    annual cost the company will cover or reducing the
    company-paid percentage.
    0 Employer-paid work-life benefits costs (specifically,
    paid time off) represent about 8 percent of total
    compensation cost. Paid time off (e.g., vacation,
    holidays, personal days) depends on length of service
    in major companies.
    To ensure employers have a complete picture of
    the cost of workers aged 50 and older, the study’s
    business case analysis also looked at key one-time,
    turnover-related costs that are typically incurred
    when employees leave or join an organization:
    0 The cost of departure, including exit cost (time
    associated with exit interviewing and expense
    of processing terminations); departing employee
    18
    WorldatWork Journal third quarter 2006
    FIGURE 5 Annual Aggregate Medical Claim Costs for Employees and Dependents, by Age of Employee
    $0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000
    Age 25-29
    $2,148
    Age 30-34
    $3,206
    Age 35-39
    $3,759
    Age 40-44
    $4,130
    Age 45-49
    $4,789
    Source: 2003 Towers Perrin Talent Report, based on a random survey of more than 35,000 employees working for large U.S. companies (i.e.  Fortune 1000 companies and equivalents)
    ©2005 Towers Perrin; reprinted with permission.
    Age 50-54
    $5,685
    Age 55-59
    $6,617
    Age 60-64
    $7,622
    inefficiency (reduced productivity of departing
    employees in their final months of service with
    an organization); out-of-pocket costs for finding
    replacements (search fees, for instance); and
    vacancy costs (lost productivity during the average
    time required to fill the position).
    0 New employee costs, including the cost of hiring
    (e.g., recruiting, advertising, travel for job interviews
    and relocation costs), orientation costs (initial
    training and onboarding) and incoming employee
    inefficiency (e.g., reduced productivity until a new
    employee gains proficiency in the job).
    Analysis was completed by examining separately
    the cost impact of doubling the retention and attraction
    of workers aged 50 and older (from 20 percent to
    40 percent of the pool of employees to be hired or
    retained). The results of these comparisons show that
    the cost impact of hiring and retaining more older
    workers can be quite modest:
    0 Less than 3 percent for increasing retention of
    workers aged 50 and older in selected positions
    in the four industries studied
    0 Only about 1 percent for increasing attraction of
    workers aged 50 and older in these positions.
    What’s more, because turnover costs can be as
    much as 50 percent or more of annual pay for many
    positions, the analysis concluded that the benefits
    of a stable workforce and avoiding turnover cost can
    often exceed the incremental compensation and benefit
    cost for workers aged 50 and older.
    To develop meaningful cost comparisons, cost
    analysis was focused on specific positions in four key
    industries. These four were selected because of their
    size, importance to the economy and their wide range
    of workforce demographics and talent needs:
    0 Energy
    0 Financial services
    0 Health care
    0 Retail.
    Balancing Value and Cost
    Summary findings for positions in the four target
    industries appear in Figure 6 (on page 20).
    Bottom line: Retaining or hiring additional older
    workers may not cost much more than retaining or
    hiring younger group, and these workers can offer
    important performance advantages in the right roles as
    a result of their enhanced skills, experience, maturity
    and engagement.
    Seizing the Opportunity
    How can organizations make the most of their
    experienced talent and turn the challenge of the aging
    workforce into an opportunity? From their experience
    consulting to leading organizations, the authors believe
    the answer lies in understanding the current, and future,
    workforce composition and offering the right package
    of rewards and other programs to attract, retain and
    engage the people an organization needs. The opportunity
    also exists to align employee and customer demographics
    and to become a chosen employer for the multiple
    generations represented in today’s workforce.
    19
    WorldatWork Journal third quarter 2006
    The cost impact
    of hiring and
    retaining more
    older workers can
    be quite modest.
    For example, some companies may be able to escape
    the anticipated talent crunch entirely if today’s 50-and-
    older workers do, in fact, stay in the workforce longer
    than previous generations. The trend toward earlier
    retirement seems to be reversing. However, whether any
    organization will be successful in retaining its baby
    boomer talent will depend on offering rewards that
    effectively meet the needs of older workers. The research
    shows these include competitive health-care and
    retirement benefits as well as important intangibles like
    work-schedule and work-location flexibility and respect
    for employee contributions.
    Health-care and retirement benefits top the list of what
    50-and-older workers at large companies look for in
    deciding whether to stay with an organization, although
    intangibles like work-life balance, the opportunity to work
    with high-caliber colleagues and on-the-job recognition
    also play significant roles (See Figure 7 on page 21).
    To compete successfully for talent as the coming
    demographic shift unfolds, employers will need to create
    a work environment that is welcoming and stimulating
    for employees of all ages. And they will need to offer the
    kinds of flexible job opportunities that respond to a broad
    range of employee preferences and needs.
    AARP’s 2003 survey of more than 2,000 workers aged
    50-70 sheds light on specific attributes workers 50 and
    older are looking for in the workplace (See Figure 8 on
    page 21). Among those interested in working in
    retirement, the most important aspects include:
    0An environment in which their opinions are valued
    and in which they can gain new skills and experiences
    0The ability to choose their hours, take time off to care
    for relatives and work from home
    0 An organization that allows people aged 50 and older
    to remain employed for as long as they want to
    continue working
    0The opportunity to have new experiences and learn
    new skills
    0 Access to good health benefits.
    Organizations that offer the right mix of rewards and
    20
    WorldatWork Journal third quarter 2006
    Key value differentiators
    0 Higher motivation
    0 Skilled talent shortages
    0 Experience and
    knowledge premium
    0 Knowledge transfer
    0 Higher motivation
    0 Lower turnover
    0 Experience and
    knowledge premium
    0 Alignment with
    customer base
    0 Higher motivation
    0 Skilled talent shortages
    0 Experience and
    knowledge premium
    0 Alignment with
    customer base
    0 Lower turnover
    0 Alignment with
    customer base
    0 Scheduling flexibility

    MGMT255 GlobalAging Aging_workforce 代写
    One-time turnover cost as
    percent of total annual
    compensation cost
    38% 33% 29% 39%
    Estimated difference in
    average per-employee total
    compensation costs
    associated with doubling the
    retention of workers age 55
    with 20 years of service from
    20% to 40%
    3% 1% 2% 2%
    Estimated difference in
    average per-employee total
    compensation costs
    associated with doubling the
    percentage of new hires age
    55 from 20% to 40%
    1% <1% 1% 1%
    FIGURE 6 Value and Cost Comparisons - Summary of Analysis of Focused Retention and Attraction
    Source: 2003 Towers Perrin data for large U.S. employers (i.e.,  Fortune 1000 companies and equivalents) and analysis of data from the Saratoga Institute and other resources. For more data,
    methodology and assumptions, see Section III of the full report ©2005 Towers Perrin; reprinted with permission.
    Position (Industry)
    Engineer (Energy)
    Sales Manager
    (Financial Services)
    Nurse (Health Care) Store Manager (Retail)
    can structure or redesign jobs to match what 50-and-
    older workers are looking for will likely have a large,
    and growing, pool of talent available to them as
    demographic forces take hold.
    How Employers Are Responding
    How are major employers responding to the emerging
    talent challenges and opportunities posed by shifting
    demographics? Figure 9 on page 22 shows the most
    21
    WorldatWork Journal third quarter 2006
    FIGURE 7 Top Five Factors Employees 50+ in Large Companies Consider in Deciding to Stay With a Company
    0% 20 40 60 80 100%
    Competitive health-care benefits package
    61
    Competitive retirement benefits package
    54
    Work-life balance
    35
    The caliber of people with whom I work
    28
    Recognition for work
    27
    Source: 2005 Towers Perrin online survey of approximately 1,500 randomly selected employees age 50-plus working for large U.S. companies (i.e. Fortune 1000 companies and equivalents)
    ©2005 Towers Perrin; reprinted with permission.
    FIGURE 8 Importance of Selected Benefits and Employer Characteristics in Retirement Work
    0% 20 40 60 80 100%
    Working in an environment where employee opinions are valued
    66
    Being able to take time off to care for grandchildren, parents or other relatives
    57
    Being able to set your own hours
    56
    Working for a company that lets its older employees remain employed for as long as they wish to work
    58
    Having new experiences
    41
    Source: “Staying Ahead of the Curve 2003: The AARP Working in Retirement Study,” an AARP telephone survey of 2,001 workers ages 50-70; table is based on the 1,020 workers who expected to
    work in retirement and had not yet retired. ©2005 AARP; reprinted with permission.
    Being able to learn new skills
    41
    Working for a company that offers employment opportunities to retirees
    52
    Working for a company that offers good health benefits
    56
    Working for a company that offers health benefits to retirees
    55
    Being able to work a reduced schedule for a period of time before retiring completely
    39
    Working for a company that offers a good pension plan
    44
    Being able to work from home
    31
    Working for yourself or starting your own business
    30
    21
    29
    30
    25
    41
    39
    24
    18
    18
    33
    19
    27
    20
    13
    14
    14
    17
    18
    20
    24
    26
    27
    28
    37
    42
    50
    Very Important Somewhat Important Not Important
    common approaches in use among U.S. employers,
    according to a Society for Human Resource Management
    (SHRM) survey of more than 400 HR executives. Although
    the majority are taking some action, almost one-third of
    these employers are not yet addressing the issue.
    Because of the regulatory impediments to formal
    phased retirement programs, a growing number of
    companies are implementing innovative strategies for
    bringing recent retirees with needed skills back into the
    workplace. Examples that have been profiled recently in
    various news reports include the following:
    0 Monsanto offers part-time re-employment
    opportunities to workers who have been retired from
    the company at least six months. Workers who take
    the offer suffer no loss of retiree benefits.
    0 SSM Health Care, a large Catholic hospital system, is
    addressing its nursing shortage by offering retired
    workers the opportunity to return to work with full
    pension benefits. They can come back to the
    organization as soon as one day after they retire.
    Workers can retire as early as age 60 and continue to
    work in the system under this program, which has
    received an exemption from the IRS.
    0 A program called YourEncore helps organizations hire
    highly skilled retirees such as scientists, engineers and
    product developers on a contract basis. Proctor &
    Gamble and Eli Lilly established the program in
    2003, and it serves as an employment agency for
    retirees with specialized skills. YourEncore functions
    independently of the employers, contracting with
    them and placing retirees on short-term assignments
    with the participating companies.
    Some companies are using increasingly innovative
    mentoring and related programs to help retain a
    portion of the tacit knowledge possessed by experienced
    employees. Examples include the following:
    0 Dow Chemical has had a formal mentoring program
    in place for a decade. Mentors in the program meet
    regularly with a small group of protégés to share
    insights and experiences and check progress.
    0 Northrop Grumman has established several
    “communities of practice” to facilitate knowledge
    22
    WorldatWork Journal third quarter 2006
    FIGURE 9 How Organizations are Preparing for the Possibility of a Shortage of Workers Due to the Retiring Baby Boomer Generation
    0% 10 20 30 40 50%
    Increased training
    36
    Succession plans/replacement charts
    29
    Flexible scheduling
    21
    Created bridge employment
    20
    Capture institutional memory/organizational knowledge
    18
    Source: Older Workers Survey of more than 400 human resources executives in U.S. companies, Society for Human Resource Management, 2003. ©2005 AARP; reprinted with permission.
    Increased recruiting
    16
    On radar screen
    15
    Phased/gradual retirement
    10
    Do nothing
    32
    sharing. Community sessions take place via online
    and regular in-person meetings. The communities
    often cut across disciplines and divisions to encourage
    participants to think beyond organizational lines.
    For organizations that are beginning to realize aging
    workforce issues, here is a starting point to help a
    company avoid a demographically driven talent
    shortage in the not-too-distant future:
    0 Look at workforce makeup. Although relatively few
    companies thus far have taken a close look at how
    current demographic trends are likely to affect their
    future talent needs, more companies are starting to
    focus on this issue. Consider factors such as the
    numbers of employees in various age groups and the
    percentage likely to retire in three to five years, and
    use this information to plan recruiting, retention and
    knowledge-transfer strategies.
    0 Understand future talent requirements versus current
    supply. Examine the company’s workforce makeup
    and staffing trends (e.g., turnover, retirement patterns,
    etc.) and define its future talent needs, based on a
    careful analysis of the company’s business plans.
    0 Explore best practices. Companies are already moving
    aggressively to attract and keep 50-plus workers
    through targeted recruitment and other programs.
    Some innovative approaches already are taking shape;
    a few are noted in this paper.
    Our most important piece of advice is perhaps the
    simplest: Start now. Companies that do so will be in
    a better position to attract and retain talent as
    workforce demographics shift. Moving quickly may
    mean seizing the competitive high ground when it
    comes to taking maximum advantage of the age 50 and
    older workforce.
    23
    WorldatWork Journal third quarter 2006
    Resources Plus
    For more information related to this paper:
    Go to www.worldatwork.org/advancedsearch and type in this key word
    string on the search line:
    • aging workforce or older employee or older workers
    Go to www.worldatwork.org/certification for:
    • W1: Introduction to Work-Life Effectiveness
    Successful Work-Life Programs to Attract, Motivate
    and Retain Employees
    Understand the Impact of Work-Life Effectiveness.
    Authors
    Roselyn R. Feinsod, F.S.A., a principal in the Stamford office of Towers Perrin, and
    Thomas O. Davenport, a principal in the firm’s San Francisco office, led the
    research team that conducted the recent Towers Perrin study for AARP discussed in
    this paper.Towers Perrin is a global professional services firm that helps
    organizations around the world optimize performance through effective people, risk
    and financial management.
    References
    Charness,Neil.(2000).“Can Acquired Knowledge Compensate for Age-Related
    Declines in Cognitive Efficiency?” Psychology and the Aging Revolution: How We
    Adapt to Longer Life (Editors:Qualls,Sarah Honn and Norman Abeles).Washington,
    D.C.:American Psychological Association.
    Edington,Dee W.(2001).University of Michigan Health Management Research Center
    (2001). American Journal of Health Promotion
    Towers Perrin.(2005).“The Business Case for Workers Age 50+:Planning for
    Tomorrow’s Talent Needs in Today’s Competitive Environment.”A report for AARP.
    www.aarp.org/employerresourcecenter.
    Reprinted from WorldatWork Journal, third quarter
    2006, with permission from WorldatWork, 14040
    N. Northsight Blvd., Scottsdale, AZ 85260; phone
    877/951-9191; fax 480/483-8352;
    www.worldatwork.org. © 2006 WorldatWork.
    Unauthorized reproduction or distribution is strictly
    prohibited.
    MGMT255 GlobalAging Aging_workforce 代写