代写 MGMT949 Performance Management assignment

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  • 代写 MGMT949 Performance Management assignment

     
    1
    MGMT949
    Performance Management
    Managing for Engagement
    Week 2
    Understanding factors that influence
    work behaviour
    –Context factors
    –Personal attributes
    Last week
    ‘I do my best work when...’
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    2
    Last week: 3 conceptual approaches
    to performance management
    1. Prescriptive
    2. Descriptive
    3. Critical
    What is a ‘unitarist’ approach to
    HRM?
    • Assumes employee goals are
    identical with managerial goals
    Employee
    interests
    Organisation
    interests
    Van Buren et al. 2011: 213
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    What is performance?
    Different conceptions of
    ‘performance’ by different
    stakeholders
    Competencies + Behaviours +
    Results  (Shields, 2016)
    WHAT IS ‘PERFORMANCE’? (Cybernetic Model )
    Individual Performance
    Work Group Performance
    Organisational Performance
    Work Group Performance
    Organisational Performance
    Personal Results
    e.g. Quantity,
    Quality
    Personal Behaviour
    e.g. Effort, Citizenship
    Personal
    Competencies
    e.g. Knowledge, Skills,
    Abilities, Attitudes
    Group Results
    e.g. Productivity,
    Quality
    Work Group
    Behaviour
    e.g. Team-working
    Work Group
    Competencies
    e.g. Collective know-
    how
    Organisational
    Results
    e.g. Profitability,
    Customer Satisfaction,
    Market Share
    Organisational
    Behaviour
    e.g. Customer-focus,
    Cooperation, Creativity
    Organisational
    Competencies
    e.g. Core
    Competencies and
    People Capabilities
    Outcomes
    (Results)
    Processes
    (Behaviours)
    Inputs
    (Competencies)
    Shields, 2016
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    代写 MGMT949 Performance Management assignment
    Mainstream:
    performance management philosophy
    People
    • the most expensive resource
    • need to control and monitor
    • need direction (separation of planning
    and execution of work functions)
    Why is it necessary to
    ‘manage’ employee
    performance at all?
    • Strategic communication (role clarity)
    • Relationship building (‘team spirit’)
    • Employee development (competence)
    • Employee evaluation (accountability)
    (Shields, 2016)
    ‘done to’
    employees
    ‘done to’
    employees
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    Mainstream: fundamentals of…
    effective performance
    management?
    •  Validity
    – Construct validity
    – Content validity
    – Criterion-related validity
    •  Reliability
    •  Cost effectiveness
    •  Fairness
    – Procedural
    – Distributive
    (Shields, 2016)
    All about
    measurement?
    All about
    measurement?
    Psychology of work behaviour
    HRM
    practices
    HRM
    practices
    Psycho-
    logical
    contract
    Psycho-
    logical
    contract
    Attitudes
    Behaviour Results
    Work
    group
    identity
    Work
    group
    identity
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    Complex link between employee attitudes and
    behaviour (Engagement)
    Chapter 2
    • Work behaviours (Membership + Task + OCB)
    • Work attitudes (Satisfaction, Commitment,
    Motivation)
    • The psychological contract (Tac, Tsi, Ba, Re)
    • Organisational justice (DJ, PJ)
    • Motivation in theory and practice:
    • Content theories
    • Process theories
    Work behaviours
    • Work behaviours are physical
    and/or verbal actions by
    individuals that are:
    – Observable
    – Measurable
    – Causally linked to desired
    performance Positively or negatively
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    Key work behaviours
    . 1.  Membership behaviour
    . 2.  Task behaviour
    . 3. Organisational citizenship
    behaviour (OCB)
    Organisational citizenship
    behaviour (OCB)
    1. MEMBERSHIP BEHAVIOUR
    When people decide to  join and remain with
    an organisation. Characteristics:
    • Reduced turnover/longer tenure
    • Reduced absenteeism
    Managing Employee Performance and Reward
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    When employees perform specific work
    tasks that have been assigned to them and
    which form part of the organisation’s
    technical core.
    Characteristic:  Increased work effort
    Managing Employee Performance and Reward
    TASK BEHAVIOUR
    When employees voluntarily and altruistically undertake special
    actions that exceed membership and task compliance.
    Characteristics:
    • Volunteering to carry out task activities not formally part of the
    job (i.e. discretionary effort)
    • Persisting with extra enthusiasm or effort to complete ones
    own task activities
    • Helping and cooperating
    • Showing initiative/being innovative
    • Endorsing, supporting and defending organisational objectives
    Managing Employee Performance and Reward
    ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP
    BEHAVIOUR (OCB)
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    What could an organisation do
    to facilitate this type of
    behaviour?
    (See P. 42)
    Work attitudes: definition
    “An attitude is conscious state of mind
    about aspects of th
    “An attitude is conscious state of mind
    about aspects of th e self, the work context,
    and/or the relationship between self and
    context”
    e self, the work context,
    and/or the relationship between self and
    context” (Shields et al, 2016, p.21)
    – Consists of
    • affective state(values and emotions) = e.g. I
    like people, job satisfaction
    affective state(values and emotions) = e.g. I
    like people, job satisfaction
    • e Cognitive state (thoughts and beliefs) = e.g All
    people management subjects are good
    • Behaviour/action/response = e.g. I attend
    PM class
    Behaviour/action/response = e.g. I attend
    PM class
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    If attitudes shape behaviour, what
    shapes attitudes?
    Personality: ‘Big Five’
    1. Emotional stability
    2. Extraversion
    3. Openness to experience
    4. Agreeableness
    5. Conscientiousness
    self situation performance
    3. Work attitude categories
    • Work motivation
    • Job satisfaction
    • Organisational commitment
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    Work motivation
    – Strength of a person’s willingness to undertake work effort “
    (Shields et al, 2016: 21).
    – The willingness to exert high levels of effort toward O’nal
    goals conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some
    individual need” (S.P Robbins).
    – A process that starts with a physiological or psychological
    deficiency or need that activates behaviour that is aimed at
    a goal or incentive”
    (Fred Luthans)
    Three dimensions:
    1. The direction of effort (Why people take certain actions rather than
    others; e.g. emphasising product quantity over quality)
    2. The intensity of effort (Why the actions taken involve either a lot of
    effort, or a little)
    3. The persistence of effort (Why some actions are more sustained and
    enduring than others)
    Shields et al, 2016
    • How happy am I in my job?
    • The overall positive or negative attitudes that
    employees hold towards the job and the job context
    (Shields et al. 2016 P.33)
    The overall positive or negative attitudes that
    employees hold towards the job and the job context
    (Shields et al. 2016 P.33)
    • Covers both intrinsic (job content) factors and
    extrinsic (job context) factors, including rewards
    Job satisfaction
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    Job satisfaction
    c Intrinsic = job content/factors intrinsic to the job.
    Motivators of two factor theories
    c Extrinsic = job context, relationships, culture, HR
    practices, etc. E.g Hygiene factors of two factor theory
    How satisfied are you with your
     job content?
     job context?
    Organisational commitment
    • The strength of the employee’s attachment to the organisation;
    feeling of belongingness
    • Commitment + effort = ‘engagement’
    Three dimensions:
    1. Affective commitment (wish to remain because of perceived
    emotional benefits)
    2. Normative commitment (felt obligation to remain because of
    perceived indebtedness to the organisation)
    3. Continuance commitment (felt need to remain because of
    perceived costs of leaving)
    But commitment to who or what, exactly?
    Organisational commitment
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    Organisational commitment
    . 1.  Affective = emotional attachment
    . 2. e Normative = moral obligation
    . 3.  Continuance = cost/benefit calculation
    Relationship between
    work attitudes and work behaviour
    Relationship between
    work attitudes and work behaviour
    Task
    Behaviour
    Organizational
    Citizenship
    Behaviour
    Membership
    Behaviour
    Affective
    org.
    commitment
    Job
    satisfaction
    motivation
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    Relationship between Motivation, Job satisfaction & Performance
    (Porter- Lawler Integrated Model)
    PERFORMANCE
    (6)
    SATISFACTION
    (9)
    PERCEIVED
    EFFORT
    REWARD
    PROBABILIT
    Y(2)
    TASK
    PERCEPTIO
    N (5)
    EXTRINSIC
    REWARDS
    (7b)
    VALUE OF
    REWARDS
    (1)
    ABILITY &
    TRAITS (4)
    INTRINSIC
    REWARDS
    (7a)
    PERCEIVED
    EQUITABLE
    REWARDS
    (8)
    EFFORT (3)
    The psychological contract
    A contract: an agreement about the mutual
    responsibilities of parties in an exchange
    relationship. Involves a promise, a
    payment/consideration and an acceptance.
    The psychological contract: perceptions or
    expectations by each party as to what they and the
    other party have undertaken to give and receive in
    the exchange.
    Why does it exist? Because the employment
    exchange is typically very open-ended and
    imprecise, often leading to ‘contract drift’.
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    Psychological contract
    (employee perspective)
     Organisational
    citizenship
    behaviour
     Membership
    behaviour
     Task behaviour
     Organisational
    commitment
     Job and reward
    satisfaction
     Task motivation
    Organisational:
     Culture
     Climate
     Leadership
     HR strategy
     HR practices
    Individual:
     Prior experience
     Expectations
     Needs
     Work values and
    beliefs
     Personality
    Behavioural
    outcomes
    Attitudinal
    outcomes
    State and basis of
    the psychological
    contract
    Inputs
    + OR –
     Trust-worthiness:
    Do/can I trust my
    employer?
     Deal delivery:
    Am I getting the
    deal that I was
    promised? (4 types)
     Felt-fairness:
    Am I treated fairly?
    Source: Adapted from Guest (1998)
    • Transactional (new deal short term) =  If you perform at high
    level for as long as we need you, we will provide you with exciting
    work and opportunities to develop your human capital &
    employability.
    • l Transitional ( short term)  =  If you work harder than before, we
    may be able to keep you on, but you may have to be prepared to
    accept pay freeze or even pay cut .
    • Balanced (long term)  =  if you contribute consistently as a team
    player (OCB type) we will offer you a reward mix that balances
    your needs and ours.
    • Relational (Old deal-long term)  =  if you are loyal and work
    hard as directed, we will provide you with a secure job, pay
    increases, T & d opportunities
    Four types of Mgtespoused deal/
    contracts
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    Management-espoused psychological contracts:
    ‘relational’ vs ‘transactional’
    And you’ll be a part of:
     an exciting, dynamic organisation (for as long
    as we need each other)
    And you’ll be a part of:
     a dull but safe organisation (for the long haul)
    We’ll provide:
     A challenging work environment
     Opportunities for you to develop your
    knowledge, skills, abilities and marketability
     External employability
     Reward for your individual contribution
     Appropriate work–life balance
    We’ll provide:
     A secure job (here)
     Internal training opportunities
     Steady pay increases
     Financial security
    If you:
     Develop the competencies we need
     Apply them in ways that help us to succeed
     Behave consistently with our corporate values
    If you:
     Are loyal
     Work hard
     Do as you are told
    Basis of the employment exchange:
     Economic-instrumental exchange
    Basis of the employment exchange:
     Social-emotional exchange
    Key principle:
     ‘A flexible, mutually beneficial partnership’
    for as long as the partnership is necessary
    Key principle:
     ‘A fair day’s work for a fair day’s pay’ over
    the long term
    ‘Transactional’(espoused new deal) ‘Relational’(espoused traditional deal)
    Source:
    Adapted
    from
    Rousseau
    (1995)
    Breach of psychological contract:
    some causes
    1. Reneging on promise
    (= failure to deliver on the deal):
    • Pay cut or lower increases
    • Withdrawal of overtime
    • Longer hours
    2. Incongruence of expectations
    (= misalignment of expectations):
    • Poor initial communication
    • Misunderstanding
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    3. Contract drift:
    • Organisational change (restructure, merger, acquisition)
    • Downsizing and loss of job security
    • Increasing workloads
    • Substitution of temporaries for permanents
    • Growing pay inequality
    4. Perceived unfairness
    (= Organisational injustice)
    Breach of psychological contract:
    some causes
    ‘Organisational justice’
    (or felt-fairness) perceptions
    Distributive justice:
    Perceived fairness of employment outcomes (including rewards/pay received)
     Am I adequately rewarded for what I contribute?
     How do I compare with those I like to compare myself with?
    Interactional justice:
    Perceived fairness of interpersonal/emotional relationships:
     Am I treated with dignity and respect in my daily work relationships?
    Procedural justice:
    Perceived fairness of employment decision-making processes (e.g. job evaluation;
    performance appraisal)
     How am I treated by the decision-makers?
    Basic requirements for procedural justice:
    • Same standards consistently applied
    • Judgement based on evidence
    • Fair hearing/voice (including right to refute and appeal)
    • Adequate notice (of underperformance; opportunity to improve)
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    Distributive justice:
    equity theory (J.S. Adams)
    Feeling of over-
    reward inequity
    Outcomes B
    Inputs B
    > Outcomes A
    Inputs A
    Feeling of reward
    equity
    Outcomes B
    Inputs B
    = Outcomes A
    Inputs A
    Feeling of under-
    reward inequity
    Outcomes B
    Inputs B
    < Outcomes A
    Inputs A
    A’s assessment/
    attitude
    Reference person
    (B)
    Focal
    person/self
    (A)
    Equity Theory
    Compares his/her
    Input/Output ratio
    to
    (O/I) self
    A reference person
    (RP) with input
    (IRP) and output
    (ORP)
    (O/I) reference
    person
    A person (P) with
    certain input (I) may
    receive certain out
    come (O)
    IP/OP >IRP/ORP =INEQUITY
    IP/OP =IRP/ORP =EQUITY
    IP/OP <IRP/ORP =INEQUITY
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    Perceived outcomes: Pay, benefits, recognition,
    status, achievement, satisfaction, security, etc.
    Perceived inputs: Knowledge, skills, ability,
    qualifications, experience, age, seniority, loyalty,
    effort, time, performance, responsibility, etc.
    Possible behavioural responses:
    • Leave for a more rewarding position elsewhere
    • Change outcomes within organisation
    • Change inputs
    Distributive justice:
    equity theory (J.S. Adams)
    Possible cognitive responses:
    • Rationalise away the felt inequity by altering
    perception of the ‘self’s’ own inputs and
    outcomes
    • Psychologically distort inputs and outcomes of
    the ‘comparison other’ to eliminate felt inequity
    • Change ‘comparison other’/referent
    But:
    • Which response?
    • Which referents?
    Distributive justice:
    equity theory (J.S. Adams)
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    Factors in individual performance?
    •  P = ∫ (A x M x O)
    •  P = ∫ (M x A x C x E)
    Factors in individual performance?
    •  Motivation
    – external and internal
    •  Ability
    – innate plus training
    •  Conditions
    – technology, work processes,
    org culture etc
    •  Expectations
    – “Pygmalion Effect”
    – psychological contract
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    Motivation a surrogate for
    meaning
    • ‘motivation only became an issue – for
    management and organization
    theories... when meaning either
    disappeared or was lost from work;
    • … loss of meaning of work is
    immediately connected with the
    increasing amount of  fragmentation
    and  splitting, with the way work... is
    organised in the majority of our
    Western enterprises.’
    (Sievers, 1986: 338)
    Motivation a surrogate for
    meaning
    • ‘Motivation theories reduce the complexities
    of social reality into the exclusive concerns
    of satisfaction and effectiveness.’
    • Continually increasing work effectiveness
    reduces man to a reified factor of production
    • Goal: a satisfaction lacking any values,
    meaning and fulfilment of life
    (Sievers, 1986: 337)
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    Content (or needs)
    theories of motivation
    ‘Unmet needs motivate.’
    Process (of cognitive)
    theories of motivation
    ‘Perceived pathways and outcomes motivate.’
    Seek to explain (and exploit) the cognitive processes by which
    individuals decide to pursue particular pathways to reward
    attainment and need satisfaction rather than others.
    Main process theories:
    • Equity theory (See above)
    • Expectancy theory
    • Goal-setting theory
    代写 MGMT949 Performance Management assignment
    • Reinforcement theory
    30/08/2016
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    Expectancy theory (Vroom)
    Effort/task
    behaviour
    Reward
    Valence
    (V)
    Is it worth it?
    Instrumentality
    (I)
    Will they
    deliver?
    Expectancy
    (E)
    Can I do it?
    Motivation
    Vroom’s expectancy theory
    Motivational
    Force (M)
    Expectancy
    (E)
    Instrumentality
    (I)
    Valence
    (V)
    Expectancy = perceived probability that effort will lead to good
    performance
    Instrumentality = perceived probability that good performance will lead to
    desired outcome
    Valence = value of expected outcome to the individual
    =
    X X
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    Expectancy Theory
    Effort First Level
    Outcome
    Second Level
    Outcome
    E.g.,
    Performance
    E.g., Promotion,
    Salary
    Increases etc.
    Subjective
    probability that
    effort will lead to a
    level of
    performance
    Expectancy
    Probability that a
    given level of
    performance will
    result in a
    preferred outcome
    Instrumentality
    Valance
    The value
    attached to the
    outcome
    Agreed
    goals
    Feedback
    M
    Goal
    commitment
    Goal-
    Directed
    effort
    Goal
    achievement
    Self-
    efficacy
    Goal-setting theory
    (Locke & Latham)
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    • Goal setting theory contends that
    individuals are most highly
    motivated when;
    – 1. they are set specific but
    challenging goals,
    – 2. they have strong commitments to
    these goals and
    – 3. they have a high sense of self-
    efficacy regarding goal achievement
    What is goal setting?
    10 Pin Bowling
    What makes
    bowling so much
    fun?
    What makes
    bowling so much
    fun?
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    Goals are needed for maximum
    performance
    So is  feedback -
    knowledge of results
    feedback must be
    timely, accurate,
    positive
    Goals should be public,
    clear, communicated,
    celebrated
    Goal-setting & motivation
    • Based on management by objectives
    (MBO)
    • Participative and self-regulating
    • SMART practice
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    Goal-setting & motivation:
    – c Specific goals increase performance
    – t Difficult but attainable goals = higher
    performance
    – Need sense of ownership
    – Progressive feedback
    – Self-efficacy
    – belief in one’s capabilities – confidence that the goal can be
    achieved
    Goal-setting
    • Advantages
    – Objective
    – Involved
    – Specific
    – Strategic focus
    – Continuous feedback
    – Continuous
    improvement
    – Future oriented
    – Better communication
    – Ends vs. means
    • Disadvantages
    – Means vs. ends
    – May ignore some aspects
    of work
    – Easy goal-setting if linked
    to pay
    – Still subjectivity in
    measures and targets
    – Situational constraints
    ignored
    – Goals may change
    – Not for routine jobs
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    Key implications for effective
    performance management
    •  Identify performance capabilities (KSAO’s)
    (Expectancy theory - Expectancy)
    •  Encourage task self-efficacy (Expectancy theory,
    Goal-setting theory)
    •  Set SMART tasks (Goal-setting theory)
    • Encourage employee ownership of performance
    criteria
    Encourage employee ownership of performance
    criteria (Goal-setting theory)
    Key implications for effective
    performance management
    • Accurate performance measurements (Expectancy theory -
    Instrumentality)
    • Provide timely and positive feedback (Goal-setting theory)
    • Don’t overlook the importance of intrinsic motivation (Two-factor theory).
    • Understand individual employee needs and how these differ between
    employee groups (content theories)
    • Offer individuals valued rewards, i.e. rewards that address high salience
    needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; expectancy theory – valence)
    • Link rewards clearly and directly to performance in a timely way
    (expectancy theory – instrumentality)
    • Deliver on the rewards promised (expectancy theory – instrumentality)
    • Strike an appropriate balance between financial and other rewards (two-
    factor theory)
    • Do not overlook the potential of intrinsic rewards (two-factor theory)
    • Manage perceptions of work inputs, reward outcomes and comparisons
    (equity theory)
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    HRM strategy
    • An integrated ‘bundle’ of HR
    principles and practices
    associated with how human
    resources can best be utilised
    within an organisation to ensure
    organisational effectiveness and
    to support organisational success
    Best practice vs best fit
    •  Best practice
    – One set of superior HR practices that
    can be applied in any context (closed
    approach)
    – Harvard Model
    •  Best fit
    – HR practices are contingent on
    situational factors (open approach)
    – Michigan Model
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    Motivating Yourself Through
    Self-Leadership
    代写 MGMT949 Performance Management assignment
    •  Self Leadership
    • “The process of influencing oneself to establish
    the self direction and self-motivation needed to
    perform a task”.
    • Based on the views that:
    – Employees should manage themselves most of
    the time through self-leadership
    – Social learning theory and goal setting theories
    contribute greatly to regulate behaviour
    – Least supervised work has become the pattern
    of many new jobs.
    Elements of self Leadership
    •  Personal Goal Setting
    – Effective organizations establish norms whereby
    employees have a natural tendency to set their own
    goals to motivate themselves.
    •  Constructive Thought Patterns
    – Self talk: talking to ourselves about our own
    thoughts or actions for the purpose of increasing
    our self efficacy and navigating through decisions in
    a future event.
    •  Designing Natural Rewards
    – E.g. Adding challenges to the job: try out a new
    software program to design an idea, rather than
    sketching the image with pencil
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    Elements of self Leadership Cont.
    •  Self-Monitoring
    – The process of keeping track of one’s
    progress towards a goal
    •  Self-reinforcement (Ref. Social
    Learning Theory)
    – Reinforcing our own behaviour with
    consequences within our own control
    – e.g. Taking a work break is a self-induced
    form of positive reinforcement
    – E.g. Belief that If I work hard I’ll get good
    reward
    Tutorial work:
    1. What are the main determinants of
    organisational citizenship behaviour?
    2. How does personality influence
    individual performance?
    3. How can psychological contracts be
    managed?
    4. Why is it that employees in low-paid
    jobs frequently demonstrate higher
    levels of job satisfaction than those in
    more highly-paid jobs?

    代写 MGMT949 Performance Management assignment